spatial attachment is one of the most important constructs in environmental psychology and human geography, referring to the cognitive, emotional, and functional bonds that individuals develop with their living environments. This construct reflects the quality of human–place relationships and explains how individuals, through lived experiences, social interactions, and shared memories, transform places into integral components of their individual and collective identities. Recent studies indicate that place attachment not only affects life satisfaction and quality of life but also plays a critical role in social participation, environmental conservation, responsible behavior, social resilience, and communities’ capacity to adapt to environmental changes and natural hazards. The importance of examining place attachment in rural areas, particularly under current conditions, stems from the fact that many rural settlements are confronted with challenges such as out-migration, population decline, transformations in economic and social structures, changing livelihood patterns, and alterations in the physical landscape of villages. These transformations may weaken the historical and emotional bonds between residents and their living environments and, in the long term, lead to reduced social participation and a declining willingness to remain in rural areas. Therefore, identifying the level and dimensions of place attachment can provide a basis for recognizing the socio-spatial capacities and vulnerabilities of rural settlements.

Methodology

In terms of its purpose, this study is applied, while in terms of its nature and methodological approach, it is descriptive–analytical and employs a survey research design for data collection. Given the objectives of the study, the required data were collected through both documentary and field-based survey methods. The primary instrument for collecting survey data was a researcher-developed questionnaire. According to the 2016 national census, Birjand County contained 114 inhabited rural settlements. In the present study, 30 villages with more than 50 households, comprising a population of 11,058 individuals and 3,685 households, were selected as the study sample based on their geographical location and spatial distribution. Using Cochran’s formula, a sample size of 348 households was determined, and the number of respondents in each village was allocated proportionally using a quota-based approach. Based on the theoretical foundations and previous research, place attachment was operationalized through six dimensions: social ties, economic dependence, place identity, ecological attachment, emotional attachment, and place continuity and permanence. The required data were collected through a field survey questionnaire consisting of questions on respondents’ demographic characteristics and items measuring the six dimensions of place attachment. To facilitate the measurement and analysis of the collected data, each variable was assessed using a five-point Likert scale. The data were subsequently processed using Microsoft Excel and SPSS. First, descriptive statistics were used to characterize the respondents and summarize the study variables. Subsequently, inferential statistical analyses were conducted using the one-sample t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) to examine the research findings.

Findings

The data collected through the field survey on the level of place attachment, including the dimensions and variables examined in the study, were analyzed. The mean scores indicated that social ties, with a mean of 3.82, had the highest score among the dimensions, whereas place continuity and permanence, with a mean of 2.20, had the lowest. Overall, the mean score of place attachment was 3.04, indicating a moderate level of place attachment among the rural households surveyed. Despite the low and, in some cases, negative population growth rates in rural settlements, the dimensions of social ties, place identity, and emotional attachment were found to be relatively strong among the rural population. To examine variations in place attachment at the rural district level and determine whether the observed differences in mean scores were statistically significant, analysis of variance was employed. One-way analysis of variance is a parametric statistical test used to compare the means of two or more independent groups and determine whether statistically significant differences exist among their means. The results indicated statistically significant differences among the rural districts across the dimensions of place attachment.

Discussion and Conclusion

The findings revealed that place attachment among residents of the studied rural villages was at a moderate level; however, its constituent dimensions did not exhibit a uniform pattern. The results of the one-sample t-test showed that social ties, place identity, and emotional attachment were significantly above the moderate level, whereas economic and livelihood dependence, ecological and physical attachment, and place continuity and permanence were assessed below the desirable level. This pattern suggests that place attachment in the study area is rooted more strongly in social relationships, local identity, and residents’ shared experiences than in economic and environmental capacities. The predominance of social ties over the other dimensions indicates that kinship networks, mutual trust, social participation, and local interactions remain the most important factors shaping place attachment in rural settlements. The predominance of social and identity-based dimensions is consistent with the findings of Arab et al. (2024), Yasouri et al. (2023), Mikaniki and Dorri (2023), and Carone et al. (2025), who identified social ties, place identity, and emotional attachment as key components underlying the formation and strengthening of place attachment. The findings are also consistent with studies emphasizing the role of social trust, kinship relations, and cultural identity in strengthening attachment to place. Conversely, the relatively low scores obtained for the economic and physical dimensions indicate that limited employment opportunities, restricted livelihood resources, inadequate environmental quality, and declining prospects for long-term settlement have weakened residents’ functional dependence on rural areas. The results of the analysis of variance further demonstrated statistically significant differences among the rural districts across all dimensions of place attachment. This finding highlights the determining role of the economic, social, cultural, and environmental characteristics of individual rural districts in shaping place attachment. The comparatively stronger performance of Alqhourat rural agglomeration across most indicators suggests that strengthening social capital, improving the quality of the living environment, and expanding economic opportunities can contribute simultaneously to enhancing multiple dimensions of place attachment. Overall, the findings support a multidimensional conceptualization of place attachment and demonstrate that the sustainability of rural settlements cannot be achieved solely through reliance on social ties and local identity. Rather, sustained rural settlement requires an integrated approach that simultaneously strengthens social and cultural bonds, economic and livelihood opportunities, environmental and physical conditions, and the prospects for long-term residential continuity.