1. Introduction
The rapid pace of urbanization in recent decades has led to the incorporation of numerous peripheral rural settlements into expanding urban areas, a process that has generated significant economic, social, and environmental impacts on rural settlements. In many rapidly growing cities, urban expansion has been largely achieved through the absorption of surrounding villages and former agricultural lands. In this context, the spatial expansion of urban areas through the incorporation of rural settlements and their conversion into urban territories constitutes one of the main drivers of urban growth. At the same time, the concept of quality of life (QoL) has attracted increasing scholarly attention since the second half of the twentieth century across various disciplines, including social sciences, development studies, and social policy. Despite rapid economic growth, issues such as poverty, unemployment, economic inequality, and social disparities have continued to intensify. In rural settlements, quality of life refers to the overall socioeconomic conditions of rural communities and serves as a measure of the extent to which the material and psychological needs of rural residents are satisfied. In the literature, quality of life is commonly conceptualized through both material and non-material dimensions, including health, living environment, legal frameworks, equality, employment, and family well-being.

2. Methodology
Against this background, the present study aims to conduct a comparative assessment of quality of life in villages undergoing urban incorporation and independent rural settlements in Birjand County, based on physical and institutional indicators. The study adopts a descriptive–analytical research design and, due to the comparative nature of the analysis, employs a comparative approach. Data were collected through questionnaires, interviews, and field observations. The statistical population consists of residents of two groups of villages in Birjand County: villages undergoing urban incorporation into Birjand city (Haji Abad, Amirabad, and Chehkand) and independent villages (Bejed and Mahdiabad). A stratified random sampling technique was used to select respondents. Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics. Inferential statistical methods included the one-sample t-test, independent-samples t-test, one-way ANOVA, Scheffé post hoc test, Pearson correlation coefficient, and the Mann–Whitney U test.
3. Findings
The results of hypothesis testing show that village type has a statistically significant effect on residents’ satisfaction with quality of life. The mean satisfaction level is higher in villages undergoing urban incorporation (3/33) compared to independent villages (3/11). This finding suggests that proximity to the city and improved access to public services, as well as physical and institutional infrastructure, play an important role in improving living conditions. Furthermore, the results indicate a strong positive relationship between physical infrastructure and quality of life (r = 0/79 in incorporated villages and r = 0/70 in independent villages). Similarly, institutional infrastructure is also significantly correlated with quality of life (r = 0/76 and r = 0/64, respectively). These findings indicate that quality of life in both types of rural settlements is closely associated with access to services such as transportation, education, healthcare, local councils, village administrations,and institutional support systems.

4. Discussion and Conclusion
The descriptive findings further indicate that villages undergoing urban incorporation in Birjand are experiencing a transition from a predominantly agriculture-based livelihood system toward a semi-urban economy characterized by service activities and informal/self-employment. This transition is reflected in improvements in educational attainment and income levels, alongside changes in gender composition and a fundamental restructuring of the local economic base. These results highlight the need for differentiated policy approaches for the two types of rural settlements, particularly with respect to institutional and physical dimensions. From an analytical perspective, development in the studied villages is characterized by functional imbalance. While physical development has improved, institutional development has not progressed at the same pace. If physical upgrading continues without strengthening institutional structures, these settlements risk becoming consumption-oriented spaces that neither preserve their rural identity nor benefit from the real advantages of a democratic urban living environment. Addressing this issue requires shifting attention from purely physical indicators toward strengthening local institutions and redefining the roles of village councils and village administrations within the urban governance system, so that a dependency-based relationship with the city can be replaced by a more synergistic and development-oriented interaction. Although the incorporation of villages into urban areas has improved living conditions and enhanced service provision as well as physical and institutional infrastructure, it has also created challenges such as agricultural land conversion, pressure on water resources, and threats to rural cultural identity. Therefore, rural development policies must adopt a balanced and comprehensive approach to maximize the benefits of integration while minimizing its negative consequences.Overall, the inferential results indicate that quality of life is higher in villages undergoing urban incorporation than in independent villages. However, this improvement is mainly observed in overall quality of life and physical infrastructure rather than institutional dimensions. More specifically, the incorporation process has enhanced the more tangible aspects of livability, while institutional aspects—including local governance, participation, organizational cohesion, and administrative capacity—remain relatively weak.From an analytical viewpoint, this pattern reveals an unbalanced development trajectory. Improvements in physical conditions and, to some extent, quality of life have occurred alongside institutional weaknesses. Such imbalance may threaten the long-term sustainability of development, as sustainable quality of life can only be achieved when physical development is accompanied by strengthened local institutions and participatory mechanisms. The results further show that village type has a significant effect on residents’ satisfaction with quality of life. The average satisfaction level is slightly higher in villages undergoing urban incorporation compared to independent villages. However, this process has also had wide-ranging impacts on rural livelihood systems, including reduction of agricultural land, increased pressure on water resources, land-use change, and threats to rural cultural identity. Therefore, rural development policies should be designed in a balanced and multidimensional manner to ensure that the benefits of urban incorporation are realized while its negative consequences are effectively managed.